The Global Critical Materials Recovery Market 2027-2047

Table of Contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

• 1.1 Definition and Importance of Critical Raw Materials
• 1.2 E-Waste as a Source of Critical Raw Materials
• 1.3 Electrification, Renewable and Clean Technologies
• 1.4 Regulatory Landscape
  • 1.4.1 European Union
  • 1.4.2 United States
  • 1.4.3 China
  • 1.4.4 Japan
  • 1.4.5 Australia
  • 1.4.6 Canada
  • 1.4.7 India
  • 1.4.8 South Korea
  • 1.4.9 Brazil
  • 1.4.10 Russia
  • 1.4.11 Global Initiatives
• 1.5 Key Market Drivers and Restraints
• 1.6 The Global Critical Raw Materials Market in
• 1.7 Critical Material Extraction Technology
  • 1.7.1 Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources (e.g., end-of-life products, industrial waste)
  • 1.7.2 Critical rare-earth element recovery from secondary sources
  • 1.7.3 Li-ion battery technology metal recovery
  • 1.7.4 Critical semiconductor materials recovery
  • 1.7.5 Critical platinum group metal recovery
• 1.8 Critical Raw Materials Value Chain
• 1.9 The Economic Case for Critical Raw Materials Recovery
• 1.10 Price Trends for Key Recovered Materials (2020-2026)
• 1.11 Global market forecasts
  • 1.11.1 By Material Type (2025-2047)
  • 1.11.2 By Recovery Source (2025-2047)
  • 1.11.3 By Region (2025-2047)
• 1.12 The 2025–2026 recycler shakeout

2 INTRODUCTION

• 2.1 Critical Raw Materials
• 2.2 Global situation in supply and trade
  • 2.2.1 From diversification rhetoric to industrial-policy execution
  • 2.2.2 Project Vault: a demand backstop that resets recovery economics
  • 2.2.3 The 54-nation framework: friend-shoring and enforced price floors
  • 2.2.4 Substitution as the second hedge: rare-earth-free magnets
  • 2.2.5 Recovery reframed: strategic infrastructure, not ESG compliance
• 2.3 Circular economy
  • 2.3.1 Circular use of critical raw materials
• 2.4 Critical and strategic raw materials used in the energy transition
  • 2.4.1 Greening critical metals
• 2.5 Metals and minerals processed and extracted
  • 2.5.1 Copper
    • 2.5.1.1 Global copper demand and trends
    • 2.5.1.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.1.3 Copper extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.2 Nickel
    • 2.5.2.1 Global nickel demand and trends
    • 2.5.2.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.2.3 Nickel extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.3 Cobalt
    • 2.5.3.1 Global cobalt demand and trends
    • 2.5.3.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.3.3 Cobalt extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.4 Rare Earth Elements (REE)
    • 2.5.4.1 Global Rare Earth Elements demand and trends
    • 2.5.4.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.4.3 Rare Earth Elements extraction and recovery
    • 2.5.4.4 Recovery of REEs from secondary resources
  • 2.5.5 Lithium
    • 2.5.5.1 Global lithium demand and trends
    • 2.5.5.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.5.3 Lithium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.6 Gold
    • 2.5.6.1 Global gold demand and trends
    • 2.5.6.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.6.3 Gold extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.7 Uranium
    • 2.5.7.1 Global uranium demand and trends
    • 2.5.7.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.7.3 Uranium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.8 Zinc
    • 2.5.8.1 Global Zinc demand and trends
    • 2.5.8.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.8.3 Zinc extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.9 Manganese
    • 2.5.9.1 Global manganese demand and trends
    • 2.5.9.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.9.3 Manganese extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.10 Tantalum
    • 2.5.10.1 Global tantalum demand and trends
    • 2.5.10.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.10.3 Tantalum extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.11 Niobium
    • 2.5.11.1 Global niobium demand and trends
    • 2.5.11.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.11.3 Niobium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.12 Indium
    • 2.5.12.1 Global indium demand and trends
    • 2.5.12.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.12.3 Indium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.13 Gallium
    • 2.5.13.1 Global gallium demand and trends
    • 2.5.13.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.13.3 Gallium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.14 Germanium
    • 2.5.14.1 Global germanium demand and trends
    • 2.5.14.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.14.3 Germanium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.15 Antimony
    • 2.5.15.1 Global antimony demand and trends
    • 2.5.15.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.15.3 Antimony extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.16 Scandium
    • 2.5.16.1 Global scandium demand and trends
    • 2.5.16.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.16.3 Scandium extraction and recovery
  • 2.5.17 Graphite
    • 2.5.17.1 Global graphite demand and trends
    • 2.5.17.2 Markets and applications
    • 2.5.17.3 Graphite extraction and recovery
• 2.6 Recovery sources
  • 2.6.1 Primary sources
  • 2.6.2 Secondary sources
    • 2.6.2.1 Extraction
      • 2.6.2.1.1 Hydrometallurgical extraction
        • 2.6.2.1.1.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.1.1.2 Lixiviants
        • 2.6.2.1.1.3 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.1.2 Pyrometallurgical extraction
        • 2.6.2.1.2.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.1.2.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.1.3 Biometallurgy
        • 2.6.2.1.3.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.1.3.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.1.4 Ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents
        • 2.6.2.1.4.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.1.4.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.1.5 Electroleaching extraction
        • 2.6.2.1.5.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.1.5.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.1.6 Supercritical fluid extraction
        • 2.6.2.1.6.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.1.6.2 SWOT analysis
    • 2.6.2.2 Recovery
      • 2.6.2.2.1 Solvent extraction
        • 2.6.2.2.1.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.1.2 Rare-Earth Element Recovery
        • 2.6.2.2.1.3 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.2.2 Ion exchange recovery
        • 2.6.2.2.2.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.2.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.2.3 Ionic liquid (IL) and deep eutectic solvent (DES) recovery
        • 2.6.2.2.3.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.3.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.2.4 Precipitation
        • 2.6.2.2.4.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.4.2 Coagulation and flocculation
        • 2.6.2.2.4.3 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.2.5 Biosorption
        • 2.6.2.2.5.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.5.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.2.6 Electrowinning
        • 2.6.2.2.6.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.6.2 SWOT analysis
      • 2.6.2.2.7 Direct materials recovery
        • 2.6.2.2.7.1 Overview
        • 2.6.2.2.7.2 Rare-earth Oxide (REO) Processing Using Molten Salt Electrolysis
        • 2.6.2.2.7.3 Rare-earth Magnet Recycling by Hydrogen Decrepitation
        • 2.6.2.2.7.4 Direct Recycling of Li-ion Battery Cathodes by Sintering
        • 2.6.2.2.7.5 SWOT analysis

3 CRITICAL RAW MATERIALS RECOVERY IN SEMICONDUCTORS

• 3.1 Critical semiconductor materials
• 3.2 Electronic waste (e-waste)
  • 3.2.1 Types of Critical Raw Materials found in E-Waste
  • 3.2.2 AI-enabled recovery: the DOE–Amazon collaboration
• 3.3 Photovoltaic and solar technologies
  • 3.3.1 Common types of PV panels and their critical semiconductor components
  • 3.3.2 Silicon Recovery Technology for Crystalline-Si PVs
  • 3.3.3 Tellurium Recovery from CdTe Thin-Film Photovoltaics
  • 3.3.4 Solar Panel Manufacturers and Recovery Rates
• 3.4 Concentration and value of Critical Raw Materials in E-Waste
• 3.5 Applications and Importance of Key Critical Raw Materials
• 3.6 Waste Recycling and Recovery Processes
• 3.7 Collection and Sorting Infrastructure
• 3.8 Pre-Processing Technologies
• 3.9 Metal Recovery Technologies
  • 3.9.1 Pyrometallurgy
  • 3.9.2 Hydrometallurgy
  • 3.9.3 Biometallurgy
  • 3.9.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
  • 3.9.5 Electrokinetic Separation
  • 3.9.6 Mechanochemical Processing
• 3.10 Global market 2025-2047
  • 3.10.1 Ktonnes
  • 3.10.2 Revenues
  • 3.10.3 Regional

4 CRITICAL RAW MATERIALS RECOVERY IN LI-ION BATTERIES

• 4.1 Critical Li-ion Battery Metals
• 4.2 Critical Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery
• 4.3 Lithium-Ion Battery recycling value chain
• 4.4 Black mass powder
• 4.5 Recycling different cathode chemistries
• 4.6 Preparation
• 4.7 Pre-Treatment
  • 4.7.1 Discharging
  • 4.7.2 Mechanical Pre-Treatment
  • 4.7.3 Thermal Pre-Treatment
• 4.8 Comparison of recycling techniques
• 4.9 Hydrometallurgy
  • 4.9.1 Method overview
    • 4.9.1.1 Solvent extraction
  • 4.9.2 SWOT analysis
• 4.10 Pyrometallurgy
  • 4.10.1 Method overview
  • 4.10.2 SWOT analysis
• 4.11 Direct recycling
  • 4.11.1 Method overview
    • 4.11.1.1 Electrolyte separation
    • 4.11.1.2 Separating cathode and anode materials
    • 4.11.1.3 Binder removal
    • 4.11.1.4 Relithiation
    • 4.11.1.5 Cathode recovery and rejuvenation
    • 4.11.1.6 Hydrometallurgical-direct hybrid recycling
  • 4.11.2 SWOT analysis
• 4.12 Other methods
  • 4.12.1 Mechanochemical Pretreatment
  • 4.12.2 Electrochemical Method
  • 4.12.3 Ionic Liquids
• 4.13 Recycling of Specific Components
  • 4.13.1 Anode (Graphite)
  • 4.13.2 Cathode
  • 4.13.3 Electrolyte
• 4.14 Recycling of Beyond Li-ion Batteries
  • 4.14.1 Conventional vs Emerging Processes
  • 4.14.2 Li-Metal batteries
  • 4.14.3 Lithium sulfur batteries (Li–S)
  • 4.14.4 All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs)
• 4.15 Economic case for Li-ion battery recycling
  • 4.15.1 Onshoring the battery loop
  • 4.15.2 Metal prices
  • 4.15.3 Second-life energy storage
  • 4.15.4 LFP batteries
  • 4.15.5 Other components and materials
  • 4.15.6 Reducing costs
• 4.16 Competitive landscape
• 4.17 Global capacities, current and planned
• 4.18 Future outlook
• 4.19 Global market 2025-2047
  • 4.19.1 Chemistry
  • 4.19.2 Ktonnes
  • 4.19.3 Revenues
  • 4.19.4 Regional

5 CRITICAL RARE-EARTH ELEMENT RECOVERY

• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Permanent magnet applications
• 5.3 Recovery technologies
  • 5.3.1 Long-loop and short-loop recovery methods
  • 5.3.2 Hydrogen decrepitation
  • 5.3.3 Powder metallurgy (PM)
  • 5.3.4 Long-loop magnet recycling
  • 5.3.5 Solvent Extraction
  • 5.3.6 Ion Exchange Resin Chromatography
  • 5.3.7 Electrolysis and Metallothermic Reduction
• 5.4 Markets
  • 5.4.1 Rare-earth magnet market
    • 5.4.1.1 Substitution: rare-earth-free magnets as a parallel hedge
  • 5.4.2 Rare-earth magnet recovery technology
  • 5.4.3 Distributed domestic recovery
• 5.5 Global market 2025-2047
  • 5.5.1 Ktonnes
  • 5.5.2 Revenues

6 CRITICAL PLATINUM GROUP METAL RECOVERY

• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Supply chain
• 6.3 Prices
• 6.4 PGM Recovery
• 6.5 PGM recovery from spent automotive catalysts
• 6.6 PGM recovery from hydrogen electrolyzers and fuel cells
  • 6.6.1 Green hydrogen market
  • 6.6.2 PGM recovery from hydrogen-related technologies
  • 6.6.3 Catalyst Coated Membranes (CCMs)
  • 6.6.4 Fuel cell catalysts
  • 6.6.5 Emerging technologies
    • 6.6.5.1 Microwave-assisted Leaching
    • 6.6.5.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
    • 6.6.5.3 Bioleaching
    • 6.6.5.4 Electrochemical Recovery
    • 6.6.5.5 Membrane Separation
    • 6.6.5.6 Ionic Liquids
    • 6.6.5.7 Photocatalytic Recovery
  • 6.6.6 Sustainability of the hydrogen economy
• 6.7 Markets
• 6.8 Global market 2025-2047
  • 6.8.1 Ktonnes
  • 6.8.2 Revenues

7 COMPANY PROFILES 227 (159 company profiles)

8 APPENDICES

• 8.1 Research Methodology
• 8.2 Glossary of Terms
• 8.3 List of Abbreviations

9 REFERENCES

List of Tables

• Table 1. List of Key Critical Raw Materials and Their Primary Applications.
• Table 2. Regulatory Landscape for Critical Raw Materials by Country/Region.
• Table 3. Key Market Drivers and Restraints in Critical Raw Materials Recovery.
• Table 4. Global Production of Critical Materials by Country (Top 10 Countries).
• Table 5. Projected Demand for Critical Materials in Clean Energy Technologies (2024–2047).
• Table 6. Value Proposition for Critical Material Extraction Technologies.
• Table 7. Critical Material Extraction Methods Evaluated by Key Performance Metrics.
• Table 8. Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources
• Table 9. Critical Rare-Earth Element Recovery Technologies from Secondary Sources.
• Table 10. Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery Methods-Metal, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Environmental Impact, Economic Viability.
• Table 11. Critical Semiconductor Materials Recovery-Material, Primary Source, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Potential Applications.
• Table 12. Critical Semiconductor Material Recovery from Secondary Sources.
• Table 13. Critical Platinum Group Metal Recovery.
• Table 14. Price Trends for Key Recovered Materials (2020-2026).
• Table 15. Global critical raw materials recovery market by material types (2025-2047), by ktonnes.
• Table 16. Global critical raw materials recovery market by material types (2025-2047), by value (Billions USD).
• Table 17. Global critical raw materials recovery by recovery source, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)
• Table 18. Global critical raw materials recovery by recovery source, 2025–2047 (value, $B)
• Table 19. Global critical raw materials recovery by region, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)
• Table 20. Global critical raw materials recovery by region, 2025–2047 (value, $B)
• Table 21. Primary global suppliers of critical raw materials.
• Table 22. Current contribution of recycling to meet global demand of CRMs.
• Table 23. Applications and Importance of Key Critical Raw Materials.
• Table 24. Comparison of Recovery Rates for Different Critical Materials.
• Table 25. Markets and applications: copper.
• Table 26. Technologies and Techniques for Copper Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 27. Markets and applications: nickel.
• Table 28. Technologies and Techniques for Nickel Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 29. Markets and applications: cobalt.
• Table 30. Technologies and Techniques for Cobalt Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 31. Markets and applications: rare earth elements.
• Table 32. Technologies and Techniques for Rare Earth Elements Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 33. Markets and applications: lithium.
• Table 34. Technologies and Techniques for Lithium Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 35. Markets and applications: gold.
• Table 36. Technologies and Techniques for Gold Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 37. Markets and applications: uranium.
• Table 38. Technologies and Techniques for Uranium Extraction and Recovery.
• Table 39. Markets and applications: zinc.
• Table 40. Zinc Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 41. Markets and applications: manganese.
• Table 42. Manganese Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 43. Markets and applications: tantalum.
• Table 44. Tantalum Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 45. Markets and applications: niobium.
• Table 46. Niobium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 47. Markets and applications: indium.
• Table 48. Indium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 49. Markets and applications: gallium.
• Table 50. Gallium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 51. Markets and applications: germanium.
• Table 52. Germanium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 53. Markets and applications: antimony.
• Table 54. Antimony Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 55. Markets and applications: scandium.
• Table 56. Scandium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.
• Table 57. Graphite Markets and Applications.
• Table 58. Graphite Extraction and Recovery Techniques and Technologies.
• Table 59. Comparison of Primary vs Secondary Production for Key Materials.
• Table 60. Environmental Impact Comparison: Primary vs Secondary Production.
• Table 61. Technologies for critical material recovery from secondary sources.
• Table 62. Technologies for critical raw material recovery from secondary sources.
• Table 63. Critical raw material extraction technologies.
• Table 64. Pyrometallurgical extraction methods.
• Table 65. Bioleaching processes and their applicability to critical materials.
• Table 66. Comparative analysis of metal recovery technologies.
• Table 67. Technology readiness of critical material recovery technologies by secondary material sources.
• Table 68. Technology readiness of critical semiconductor recovery technologies.
• Table 69. Critical Semiconductors Applications and Recycling Rates.
• Table 70. Types of critical raw Materials found in E-Waste.
• Table 71. E-waste Generation and Recycling Rates.
• Table 72. Critical Semiconductor Recovery from Photovoltaics.
• Table 73. Solar Panel Manufacturers and Their Recycling Capabilities.
• Table 74. Concentration and Value of Critical Raw Materials in E-waste.
• Table 75. Critical Semiconductor Materials and Their Applications.
• Table 76. Critical Materials Waste Recycling and Recovery Processes.
• Table 77. Collection and Sorting Infrastructure for Critical Materials Recycling.
• Table 78. Pre-Processing Technologies for Critical Materials Recycling.
• Table 79. Global recovered critical electronics materials, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)
• Table 80. Global recovered critical electronics materials, 2025–2047 (value, $B)
• Table 81. Recovered critical raw electronics material market, by region, 2025-2047 (ktonnes).
• Table 82. Drivers for Recycling Li-ion Batteries.
• Table 83. Li-ion Battery Metal Recovery Technologies.
• Table 84. Li-ion battery recycling value chain.
• Table 85. Typical lithium-ion battery recycling process flow.
• Table 86. Main feedstock streams that can be recycled for lithium-ion batteries.
• Table 87. Comparison of LIB recycling methods.
• Table 88. Comparison of conventional and emerging processes for recycling beyond lithium-ion batteries.
• Table 89. Economic assessment of battery recycling options.
• Table 90. Retired lithium-batteries.
• Table 91. Global capacities, current and planned (tonnes/year).
• Table 92. Global scrapped EV (BEV+PHEV) forecast to 2047.
• Table 93. Global Li-ion battery recycling by cathode chemistry, 2025–2047 (tonnes)
• Table 94. Global Li-ion battery recycling volume, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)
• Table 95. Global Li-ion battery recycling revenues, 2025–2047 ($B)
• Table 96. Li-ion battery recycling market, by region, 2025-2047 (ktonnes).
• Table 97. Critical rare-earth elements markets and applications.
• Table 98. Primary and Secondary Material Streams for Rare-Earth Element Recovery.
• Table 99. Critical rare-earth element recovery technologies.
• Table 100. Rare Earth Element Content in Secondary Material Sources.
• Table 101. Comparison of Short-loop and Long-loop Rare Earth Recovery Methods.
• Table 102. Long-loop Rare-Earth Magnet Recycling Technologies.
• Table 103. Rare Earth Element Demand by Application.
• Table 104. Global rare-earth magnet key players in a table
• Table 105. Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Value Chain.
• Table 106.Technology readiness of REE recovery technologies
• Table 107. Global recovered critical rare-earth elements, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)
• Table 108. Global recovered critical rare-earth elements, 2025–2047 (value, $B)
• Table 109. Global PGM Demand Segmented by Application.
• Table 110. Critical Platinum Group Metals: Applications and Recycling Rates.
• Table 111. Technology Readiness of Critical PGM Recovery from Secondary Sources.
• Table 112. Automotive Catalyst Recycling Players.
• Table 113. Challenges in transitioning to new PEMEL catalysts and the role of PGM recycling in a table.
• Table 114. Key Suppliers of Catalysts for Fuel Cells.
• Table 115. Global recovered critical platinum group metals, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)
• Table 116. Global recovered critical platinum group metal market, 2025-2047 (billions USD).
• Table 117. Glossary of terms.
• Table 118. List of Abbreviations.

List of Figures

• Figure 1. TRL of critical material extraction technologies.
• Figure 2. Critical Raw Materials Value Chain.
• Figure 3. Conceptual diagram illustrating the Circular Economy.
• Figure 4. Circular Economy Model for Critical Materials.
• Figure 5. Copper demand outlook.
• Figure 6. Global nickel demand outlook.
• Figure 7. Global cobalt demand outlook.
• Figure 8. Global lithium demand outlook.
• Figure 9. Global graphite demand outlook.
• Figure 10. Solvent extraction (SX) in hydrometallurgy.
• Figure 11. SWOT analysis: hydrometallurgical extraction.
• Figure 12. SWOT analysis: pyrometallurgical extraction of critical materials.
• Figure 13. SWOT analysis: biometallurgy for critical material extraction.
• Figure 14. SWOT analysis: ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents for critical material extraction.
• Figure 15. SWOT analysis: electrochemical leaching for critical material extraction.
• Figure 16. SWOT analysis: supercritical fluid extraction technology.
• Figure 17. SWOT analysis: solvent extraction recovery technology.
• Figure 18. SWOT analysis: ion exchange resin recovery technology.
• Figure 19. SWOT analysis: ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents for critical material recovery.
• Figure 20. SWOT analysis: precipitation for critical material recovery.
• Figure 21. SWOT analysis: biosorption for critical material recovery.
• Figure 22. SWOT analysis: electrowinning for critical material recovery.
• Figure 23. SWOT analysis: direct critical material recovery technology.
• Figure 25. Typical direct, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical recycling methods for recovery of Li-ion battery active materials.
• Figure 26. Mechanical separation flow diagram.
• Figure 27. Recupyl mechanical separation flow diagram.
• Figure 28. Flow chart of recycling processes of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).
• Figure 29. Hydrometallurgical recycling flow sheet.
• Figure 30. SWOT analysis for Hydrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.
• Figure 31. Umicore recycling flow diagram.
• Figure 32. SWOT analysis for Pyrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.
• Figure 33. Schematic of direct recyling process.
• Figure 34. SWOT analysis for Direct Li-ion Battery Recycling.
• Figure 35. Schematic diagram of a Li-metal battery.
• Figure 36. Schematic diagram of Lithium–sulfur battery.
• Figure 37. Schematic illustration of all-solid-state lithium battery.