Educational Furniture Market Size and Forecasts, Global and Regional Share, Trends, and Growth Opportunity Analysis By Material, Product Type, and End Use

List of Tables

The educational furniture market size is projected to grow from US$ 7.78 billion in 2022 to US$ 11.61 billion by 2030; the market is expected to register a CAGR of 5.1% from 2022 to 2030.

The selection of right educational furniture is a major factor during the development of education infrastructure. Furniture used in educational applications is designed for high-performance learning environments. These companies are offering furniture such as tables, chairs, benches, soft rock chairs, and others for the classroom, library, and in-between space. In addition, different type of student seating such as ChangeUp Tablet Arm, Intellect Wave Chair, Learn2 Seating, Ricochet Stool, and Ruckus Chair is popular among the schools in the US. Tables such as rectangle, arc, blade, blend, delta, diamond, kidney, round, flip-door plane, and D-top for the classroom, makerspace, cafeteria, library, common rooms, and CTE are highly available in the US market. Moreover, manufacturers are strengthening their position by merging with or acquiring other furniture producers, and also offering innovative products to gain more customer base.

Based on product type, the global educational furniture market is segmented into benches and chairs, desks and tables, storage units, and others. In 2021, the benches and chairs segment held the largest market share and is expected to register the highest CAGR during the forecast period. Benches and chairs are supplied to the school management across the globe in bulk quantities. School chairs vary in design and are primarily made of wood, metal, and synthetic plastic materials. Major market players offer distinct portfolios on benches and chairs; for instance, magis spun chair, caper stacking chair, intellect wave chair, ruckus chair, stacking study chair, ergo stacking chair, stacking chair, and study chair, across the globe to meet the varied customer requirements.

The global educational furniture market is segmented into Asia Pacific, Europe, Middle East & Africa, North America, and South & Central America. In 2021, North America held the largest share of the global educational furniture market, and Asia Pacific is expected to register the highest CAGR during the forecast period. The educational furniture market in Asia Pacific is segmented into China, India, Australia, Japan, South Korea, and the Rest of Asia Pacific. Increased focus on education across urban and rural areas, and the implementation of mandatory primary education schemes by governments of various countries result in the construction of schools and educational institutions across this region. In May 2020, the Government of India announced financial aid for the Government of Nepal of US$ 819,400 for the construction of school buildings, boosting the educational infrastructure in Nepal. Such initiatives through schemes and funding resulting in the construction of new educational institutes contribute to the demand for educational furniture in the region.

The COVID-19 pandemic affected economies and industries in various countries with lockdowns, travel restrictions, and business shutdowns. These shutdowns disturbed global supply chains, manufacturing activities, delivery schedules, and essential and nonessential product sales. Various companies announced possible delays in product deliveries and a slump in future sales of their products in 2020. Further, the bans imposed by governments of various countries, including the US, China, India, Germany, and Italy, on international travel forced several companies to discontinue their collaboration and partnership plans. All these factors hampered the consumer goods industry in 2020 and early 2021, thereby restraining the growth of various markets related to this industry, including the educational furniture market.

The onset of the COVID-19 outbreak created a temporary disruption in operational efficiencies in the European market. The continued closure of schools due to the pandemic has caused unprecedented challenges in the region's educational furniture market. Supply chain disruption due to COVID-19 pertaining to production and transport delays impacted the educational furniture market. However, countries in the European Union provided financial support to affected industries. For instance, under the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RPP), Italy granted funding of US$ 233.4 for plan execution, of which US$ 23.4 are for measures related to strengthening the education and training offered and improving its quality at all levels, from early childhood education & care to higher education.

AFC Furniture Solutions Pvt Ltd, Fleetwood Group Inc, Scholar Craft Products Inc, Smith Systems Manufacturing Co, Knoll Inc, Haworth Inc, Vitra International AG, Virco Manufacturing Corp, Office Line Srl, and Creaciones Falcon SLU are among the leading players in the global educational furniture market. These companies are adopting strategies such as mergers & acquisitions and product launches to expand their geographic presence and consumer bases.

The overall global educational furniture market size has been derived using both primary and secondary sources. To begin the research process, exhaustive secondary research has been conducted using internal and external sources to obtain qualitative and quantitative information related to the market. Also, multiple primary interviews have been conducted with industry participants to validate the data and gain more analytical insights. Participants of this process include industry experts such as VPs, business development managers, market intelligence managers, and national sales managers-along with external consultants, including valuation experts, research analysts, and key opinion leaders-specializing in the global educational furniture market.

Reasons to Buy:

Save and reduce time carrying out entry-level research by identifying the growth, size, leading players, and segments in the global educational furniture market
Highlights key business priorities in order to assist companies to realign their business strategies
The key findings and recommendations highlight crucial progressive industry trends in the global educational furniture market, thereby allowing players across the value chain to develop effective long-term strategies
Develop/modify business expansion plans by using substantial growth offering developed and emerging markets
Scrutinize in-depth global market trends and outlook coupled with the factors driving the educational furniture market as well as those hindering it.
Enhance the decision-making process by understanding the strategies that underpin commercial interest with respect to client products, segmentation, pricing, and distribution

Product Code: TIPRE00028349

1. Introduction

1.1 The Insight Partners Research Report Guidance
1.2 Market Segmentation

2. Executive Summary

2.1 Key Market Insights
2.2 Market Attractiveness

3. Research Methodology

3.1 Coverage
3.2 Secondary Research
3.3 Primary Research
3.4 Limitations and Assumptions

4. Educational Furniture Market Landscape

4.1 Overview
4.2 Porter's Five Forces Analysis
- 4.2.1 Bargaining Power of Buyers:
- 4.2.2 Bargaining Power of Suppliers:
- 4.2.3 Threat of Substitutes:
- 4.2.4 Threat of New Entrants:
- 4.2.5 Competitive Rivalry:
4.3 Ecosystem Analysis
- 4.3.1 Raw Materials
- 4.3.2 Manufacturing
- 4.3.3 End Consumers
4.4 List of Vendors

5. Educational Furniture Market - Key Market Dynamics

5.1 Market Drivers
- 5.1.1 Increase in Demand for Educational Furniture in Newly Constructed Schools
- 5.1.2 Growing Demand for Modern and Flexible Learning Spaces
5.2 Market Restraints
- 5.2.1 Fluctuations in Prices of Wood
5.3 Market Opportunities
- 5.3.1 Increasing Focus on Sustainability
5.4 Future Trends
- 5.4.1 Growing Popularity of Ergonomic Furniture
5.5 Impact Analysis of Drivers and Restraint

6. Educational Furniture Market - Global Market Analysis

6.1 Educational Furniture Market Revenue (US$ Million)
6.2 Educational Furniture Market Forecast and Analysis (2020-2030)

7. Educational Furniture Market Analysis - Material

7.1 Wood
- 7.1.1 Overview
- 7.1.2 Wood: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
7.2 Plastic
- 7.2.1 Overview
- 7.2.2 Plastic: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
7.3 Metal
- 7.3.1 Overview
- 7.3.2 Metal: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
7.4 Others
- 7.4.1 Overview
- 7.4.2 Others: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)

8. Educational Furniture Market Revenue Analysis - By Product Type

8.1 Overview
8.2 Benches and Chairs
- 8.2.1 Overview
- 8.2.2 Benches and Chairs: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
8.3 Desks and Tables
- 8.3.1 Overview
- 8.3.2 Desks and Tables: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
8.4 Storage Units
- 8.4.1 Overview
- 8.4.2 Storage Units: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
8.5 Others
- 8.5.1 Overview
- 8.5.2 Others: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)

9. Educational Furniture Market Revenue Analysis - By End Use

9.1 Overview
9.2 Institutional
- 9.2.1 Overview
- 9.2.2 Institutional: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.3 Elementary School
  - 9.2.3.1 Overview
  - 9.2.3.2 Elementary School: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.4 Secondary School
  - 9.2.4.1 Overview
  - 9.2.4.2 Secondary School: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5 Higher Education
  - 9.2.5.1 Overview
  - 9.2.5.2 Higher Education: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)
9.3 Residential
- 9.3.1 Overview
- 9.3.2 Residential: Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecast to 2030 (US$ Million)

10. Educational Furniture Market - Geographical Analysis

10.1 North America
- 10.1.1 North America Educational Furniture Market Overview
- 10.1.2 North America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 10.1.3 North America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
  - 10.1.3.1 North America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Material
- 10.1.4 North America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
  - 10.1.4.1 North America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Product Type
- 10.1.5 North America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.1.5.1 North America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By End Use
- 10.1.6 North America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
  - 10.1.6.1 North America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Country
  - 10.1.6.2 US Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.1.6.2.1 US Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.1.6.2.2 US Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.1.6.2.3 US Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.1.6.3 Canada Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.1.6.3.1 Canada Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.1.6.3.2 Canada Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.1.6.3.3 Canada Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.1.6.4 Mexico Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.1.6.4.1 Mexico Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.1.6.4.2 Mexico Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.1.6.4.3 Mexico Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
10.2 Europe
- 10.2.1 Europe Educational Furniture Market Overview
- 10.2.2 Europe Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 10.2.3 Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
  - 10.2.3.1 Europe Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Material
- 10.2.4 Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
  - 10.2.4.1 Europe Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Product Type
- 10.2.5 Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.2.5.1 Europe Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By End Use
- 10.2.6 Europe Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
  - 10.2.6.1 Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Country
  - 10.2.6.2 Germany Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.2.6.2.1 Germany Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.2.6.2.2 Germany Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.2.6.2.3 Germany Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.2.6.3 France Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.2.6.3.1 France Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.2.6.3.2 France Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.2.6.3.3 France Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.2.6.4 Italy Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.2.6.4.1 Italy Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.2.6.4.2 Italy Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.2.6.4.3 Italy Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.2.6.5 UK Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.2.6.5.1 UK Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.2.6.5.2 UK Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.2.6.5.3 UK Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.2.6.6 Russia Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.2.6.6.1 Russia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.2.6.6.2 Russia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.2.6.6.3 Russia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.2.6.7 Rest of Europe Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.2.6.7.1 Rest of Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.2.6.7.2 Rest of Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.2.6.7.3 Rest of Europe Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
10.3 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market
- 10.3.1 Overview
- 10.3.2 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
- 10.3.3 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
  - 10.3.3.1 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Material
- 10.3.4 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
  - 10.3.4.1 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Product Type
- 10.3.5 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.3.5.1 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By End Use
- 10.3.6 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Country
  - 10.3.6.1 Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Country
  - 10.3.6.2 Australia Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.3.6.2.1 Australia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.3.6.2.2 Australia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.3.6.2.3 Australia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.3.6.3 China Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.3.6.3.1 China Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.3.6.3.2 China Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.3.6.3.3 China Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.3.6.4 India Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.3.6.4.1 India Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.3.6.4.2 India Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.3.6.4.3 India Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.3.6.5 Japan Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.3.6.5.1 Japan Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.3.6.5.2 Japan Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.3.6.5.3 Japan Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.3.6.6 South Korea Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.3.6.6.1 South Korea Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.3.6.6.2 South Korea Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.3.6.6.3 South Korea Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.3.6.7 Rest of Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts To 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.3.6.7.1 Rest of Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.3.6.7.2 Rest of Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.3.6.7.3 Rest of Asia Pacific Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
10.4 Middle East & Africa
- 10.4.1 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Overview
- 10.4.2 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 10.4.3 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
  - 10.4.3.1 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market and Forecasts and Analysis - By Material
- 10.4.4 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
  - 10.4.4.1 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market and Forecasts and Analysis - By Product Type
- 10.4.5 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.4.5.1 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market and Forecasts and Analysis - By End Use
- 10.4.6 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
  - 10.4.6.1 Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Country
  - 10.4.6.2 South Africa Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.4.6.2.1 South Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.4.6.2.2 South Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.4.6.2.3 South Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.4.6.3 Saudi Arabia Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.4.6.3.1 Saudi Arabia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.4.6.3.2 Saudi Arabia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.4.6.3.3 Saudi Arabia Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.4.6.4 UAE Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.4.6.4.1 UAE Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.4.6.4.2 UAE Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.4.6.4.3 UAE Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.4.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.4.6.5.1 Rest of Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.4.6.5.2 Rest of Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.4.6.5.3 Rest of Middle East & Africa Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
10.5 South & Central America
- 10.5.1 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Overview
- 10.5.2 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
- 10.5.3 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
  - 10.5.3.1 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market and Forecasts and Analysis - By Material
- 10.5.4 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
  - 10.5.4.1 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Product Type
- 10.5.5 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.5.5.1 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By End Use
- 10.5.6 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts and Analysis - By Countries
  - 10.5.6.1 South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Country
  - 10.5.6.2 Brazil Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.5.6.2.1 Brazil Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.5.6.2.2 Brazil Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.5.6.2.3 Brazil Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.5.6.3 Argentina Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.5.6.3.1 Argentina Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.5.6.3.2 Argentina Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.5.6.3.3 Argentina Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use
  - 10.5.6.4 Rest of South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Revenue and Forecasts to 2030 (US$ Million)
    - 10.5.6.4.1 Rest of South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Material
    - 10.5.6.4.2 Rest of South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by Product Type
    - 10.5.6.4.3 Rest of South & Central America Educational Furniture Market Breakdown by End Use

11. Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Global Educational Furniture Market

11.1 Pre & Post COVID-19 Impact on Educational Furniture Market

12. Industry Landscape

12.1 Merger & Acquisitions
12.2 Company News

13. Competitive Landscape

13.1 Heat Map Analysis By Key Players
13.2 Company Positioning & Concentration

14. Company Profiles

14.1 AFC Furniture Solutions Pvt Ltd
- 14.1.1 Key Facts
- 14.1.2 Business Description
- 14.1.3 Products and Services
- 14.1.4 Financial Overview
- 14.1.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.1.6 Key Developments
14.2 Fleetwood Group Inc
- 14.2.1 Key Facts
- 14.2.2 Business Description
- 14.2.3 Products and Services
- 14.2.4 Financial Overview
- 14.2.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.2.6 Key Developments
14.3 Scholar Craft Products Inc
- 14.3.1 Key Facts
- 14.3.2 Business Description
- 14.3.3 Products and Services
- 14.3.4 Financial Overview
- 14.3.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.3.6 Key Developments
14.4 Smith Systems Manufacturing Co
- 14.4.1 Key Facts
- 14.4.2 Business Description
- 14.4.3 Products and Services
- 14.4.4 Financial Overview
- 14.4.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.4.6 Key Developments
14.5 Knoll Inc
- 14.5.1 Key Facts
- 14.5.2 Business Description
- 14.5.3 Products and Services
- 14.5.4 Financial Overview
- 14.5.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.5.6 Key Developments
14.6 Haworth Inc
- 14.6.1 Key Facts
- 14.6.2 Business Description
- 14.6.3 Products and Services
- 14.6.4 Financial Overview
- 14.6.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.6.6 Key Developments
14.7 Vitra International AG
- 14.7.1 Key Facts
- 14.7.2 Business Description
- 14.7.3 Products and Services
- 14.7.4 Financial Overview
- 14.7.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.7.6 Key Developments
14.8 Virco Manufacturing Corp
- 14.8.1 Key Facts
- 14.8.2 Business Description
- 14.8.3 Products and Services
- 14.8.4 Financial Overview
- 14.8.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.8.6 Key Developments
14.9 Office Line
- 14.9.1 Key Facts
- 14.9.2 Business Description
- 14.9.3 Products and Services
- 14.9.4 Financial Overview
- 14.9.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.9.6 Key Developments
14.10 Creaciones Falcon SLU
- 14.10.1 Key Facts
- 14.10.2 Business Description
- 14.10.3 Products and Services
- 14.10.4 Financial Overview
- 14.10.5 SWOT Analysis
- 14.10.6 Key Developments

15. Appendix