PUBLISHER: ResearchInChina | PRODUCT CODE: 2074808
PUBLISHER: ResearchInChina | PRODUCT CODE: 2074808
Passenger Car Chassis Domain Control and Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Research Report, 2026
Chassis Control Research: Mass Production of Full Chassis-by-Wire Solutions Starts
1. A Cluster of Full Chassis-by-Wire Solutions Make Their Debut, and EMB Enters Mass Production and Adoption for the First Time
At the 2026 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition, multiple OEMs launched full chassis-by-wire solutions. Flagship SUVs such as the Li L9 Livis, NIO ES9, XPeng GX, IM LS8, and new AITO M9 made their debut. The 2026 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition is considered by the industry as the kick-off of the era of fully active intelligent chassis.
Vehicle Model Case (1): Li L9 Livis
Li L9 Livis, released in April 2026, has been completely refreshed in appearance and interior, and is equipped with 800V fully active suspension, EMB and front wheel steer-by-wire for the first time. Main Features of complete chassis-by-wire of Li L9 Livis include:
- 800V Fully Active Suspension
Main components: Air spring + dual-valve CDC vibration damper + 800V hydraulic pump. Auxiliary high-pressure oil pipes and completely self-developed adjustment and control software
Working Principle:
￮First stage: It filters minor vibrations passively, mainly relying on conventional air springs and dual-valve CDC dampers. It adjusts the solenoid valve of CDC with a current control accuracy of 1 ms, and the maximum response speed of the solenoid valve reaches 5 ms.
￮Second stage: The vehicle body posture is controlled mainly by the 800V hydraulic pump. When it is found that the body is about to roll or pitch, the hydraulic pump applies additional hydraulic pressure to that side to support it. The function of the hydraulic pump is to support the "displacement" of the body, and the response speed is tens of milliseconds.
Electromechanical Brake (EMB)
Co-developed with Bethel
Main Features:
￮Fully dry design completely eliminates hydraulic brake pipelines and brake fluid.
￮Independent brake motors at each wheel clamp the brake calipers separately.
￮The braking response is about 100ms faster than traditional hydraulic pressure, and the braking distance at 120km/h is shortened by about 3m.
Steer-by-wire
Front wheel steer-by-wire (Nexteer)
Main Features:
￮The physical hard connection of the mechanical steering column is eliminated.
￮The steering ratio is continuously variable with vehicle speed.
￮Triple safety redundancy (main ECU + backup channel + mechanical failure protection strategy)
Based on the 800V fully active suspension, Li Auto also launched new function scenarios such as convenient tire changing, "one-arm push-ups" and off-road escape.
"One-arm push-ups": One side of the vehicle front is rapidly lowered and lifted independently.
Off-road escape: When the vehicle is slightly stuck in the sand, the 800V active suspension begins to "beat" up and down. Every time you press down, it is like an invisible hand tapping the ground, changing the contact pressure and friction between the tire and the sand. After applying force several times in a row, the vehicle can get out of trouble on its own and no longer requires external rescue. If the vehicle is severely stuck, the lifting force of more than 10,000N on a single wheel begins to play a key role. The suspension can actively lift trapped wheels to create ground clearance, and the vehicle can easily escape by simply inserting a sandboard.
Convenient tire changing: The suspension can automatically lift the corresponding wheel, so that the tire is completely lifted off the ground, with ample operating space, no need for a jack, and easy replacement
In terms of chassis control, Li L9 Livis is equipped with two self-developed 5-nanometer automotive-grade "Mach 100" chips, with a total computing power of up to 2560 TOPS. An exclusive area for vehicle control is designed in Mach M100, and one to two hundred TOPS of computing power is reserved for chassis control. The software for the steering, braking, and suspension systems is all developed Li Auto, with code within the same architecture and naturally interconnected data
Vehicle Model Case (2): NIO ES9
NIO ES9, launched in May 2026, is equipped with NIO Skyride Intelligent Chassis. Its X-by-wire actuators include Skyride Fully Active Suspension, Skyride Four-Wheel Steer-by-Wire and Electro-Hydraulic Brake (EHB). For chassis control, it uses VMC (Vehicle Motion Control).
With the central intelligent computing platform as the core, NIO VMC weaves fully active suspension, steer-by-wire, rear-wheel steering, electric drive, braking and other execution units into a collaborative network with millisecond-level response. In addition, VMC also "shakes hands" with the cockpit domain and the body domain, allowing components such as intelligent high-definition projector headlights, interior ambient lights, electric doors, and electric rear wings to also be linked with the chassis (functional case: "SkyRide Dance" of NIO ET9).
VMC runs between the front & rear ZCUs and the central computing cluster, and combines cloud data processing capabilities to manage more than 2,100 vehicle dynamics parameters with the task processing latency of <10ms.
Based on the software and hardware (central computing + cross-domain integration + VMC control), NIO ES9 can achieve a series of chassis control functions such as high-speed tire puncture safety control, senseless passing through speed bumps, Champagne Tower Stunt on ice and snow pavements, and intelligent height limit assistance.
2. VMC Links Intelligent Driving and Chassis Actuator
Intelligent driving is developing towards L3 and above levels. The traditional distributed control architecture cannot meet the stringent requirements of high-level intelligent driving for response speed and collaborative accuracy, which has given rise to the demand for "chassis collaborative control". VMC has become a popular solution and is favored by many OEMs. As NIO engineers said: "If the intelligent driving system has to call five or six controller interfaces such as steering, braking, and suspension, it will be a disaster without VMC. VMC must become the unified interface that connects the perception of intelligent driving to the actuation of the chassis. "
SAIC IM is one of the first OEMs in China to adopt the VMC solution which has now been iterated to version 3.0 and is installed on all vehicle models of SAIC IM.
Version 1.0 was released in May 2024. At the software level, the coordinated control of the body posture in the three directions (X, Y, and Z) with six degrees of freedom can be realized, and functions such as air spring height, shock absorber damping, and electronic parking can be uniformly adjusted and controlled.
Version 2.0, released in September 2024, supports OTA. The chassis is integrated with the intelligent driving domain, and a tire puncture stability control system is added. Through the data fusion of LiDAR and wheel speed sensors, tire punctures can be identified and emergency solutions can be initiated within 200ms. In the 220km/h high-speed tire puncture test, the system controlled the vehicle offset within 0.5 meters through the coordinated control of rear wheel reverse deflection and unilateral braking.
Version 3.0 was released in November 2025 and installed on IM LS9. The number of cross-domain control items that the chassis can carry out has been increased to 14, and vehicle dynamics can be adjusted in real time to suppress motion sickness by reducing the swing amplitude. Active anti-rollover has been upgraded to version 3.0. During emergency avoidance, the top speed control over intelligent four-wheel steering can reduce the risk of rollover by up to 54%.
Table of Contents
Chassis Control Research: Mass Production of Full Chassis-by-Wire Solutions Starts
1. A Cluster of Full Chassis-by-Wire Solutions Make Their Debut, and EMB Enters Mass Production and Adoption for the First Time
At the 2026 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition, multiple OEMs launched full chassis-by-wire solutions. Flagship SUVs such as the Li L9 Livis, NIO ES9, XPeng GX, IM LS8, and new AITO M9 made their debut. The 2026 Beijing International Automotive Exhibition is considered by the industry as the kick-off of the era of fully active intelligent chassis.
Summary of Some Full Chassis-by-Wire Solutions
Source: ResearchInChina
Vehicle Model Case (1): Li L9 Livis
Li L9 Livis, released in April 2026, has been completely refreshed in appearance and interior, and is equipped with 800V fully active suspension, EMB and front wheel steer-by-wire for the first time. Main Features of complete chassis-by-wire of Li L9 Livis include:
1. 800V Fully Active Suspension
Main components: Air spring + dual-valve CDC vibration damper + 800V hydraulic pump. Auxiliary high-pressure oil pipes and completely self-developed adjustment and control software
Working Principle:
￮First stage: It filters minor vibrations passively, mainly relying on conventional air springs and dual-valve CDC dampers. It adjusts the solenoid valve of CDC with a current control accuracy of 1 ms, and the maximum response speed of the solenoid valve reaches 5 ms.
￮Second stage: The vehicle body posture is controlled mainly by the 800V hydraulic pump. When it is found that the body is about to roll or pitch, the hydraulic pump applies additional hydraulic pressure to that side to support it. The function of the hydraulic pump is to support the "displacement" of the body, and the response speed is tens of milliseconds.
2. Electromechanical Brake (EMB)
Co-developed with Bethel
Main Features:
￮Fully dry design completely eliminates hydraulic brake pipelines and brake fluid.
￮Independent brake motors at each wheel clamp the brake calipers separately.
￮The braking response is about 100ms faster than traditional hydraulic pressure, and the braking distance at 120km/h is shortened by about 3m.
3. Steer-by-wire
Front wheel steer-by-wire (Nexteer)
Main Features:
￮The physical hard connection of the mechanical steering column is eliminated.
￮The steering ratio is continuously variable with vehicle speed.
￮Triple safety redundancy (main ECU + backup channel + mechanical failure protection strategy)
Based on the 800V fully active suspension, Li Auto also launched new function scenarios such as convenient tire changing, "one-arm push-ups" and off-road escape.
"One-arm push-ups": One side of the vehicle front is rapidly lowered and lifted independently.
Off-road escape: When the vehicle is slightly stuck in the sand, the 800V active suspension begins to "beat" up and down. Every time you press down, it is like an invisible hand tapping the ground, changing the contact pressure and friction between the tire and the sand. After applying force several times in a row, the vehicle can get out of trouble on its own and no longer requires external rescue. If the vehicle is severely stuck, the lifting force of more than 10,000N on a single wheel begins to play a key role. The suspension can actively lift trapped wheels to create ground clearance, and the vehicle can easily escape by simply inserting a sandboard.
Convenient tire changing: The suspension can automatically lift the corresponding wheel, so that the tire is completely lifted off the ground, with ample operating space, no need for a jack, and easy replacement
In terms of chassis control, Li L9 Livis is equipped with two self-developed 5-nanometer automotive-grade "Mach 100" chips, with a total computing power of up to 2560 TOPS. An exclusive area for vehicle control is designed in Mach M100, and one to two hundred TOPS of computing power is reserved for chassis control. The software for the steering, braking, and suspension systems is all developed Li Auto, with code within the same architecture and naturally interconnected data
Vehicle Model Case (2): NIO ES9
NIO ES9, launched in May 2026, is equipped with NIO Skyride Intelligent Chassis. Its X-by-wire actuators include Skyride Fully Active Suspension, Skyride Four-Wheel Steer-by-Wire and Electro-Hydraulic Brake (EHB). For chassis control, it uses VMC (Vehicle Motion Control).
With the central intelligent computing platform as the core, NIO VMC weaves fully active suspension, steer-by-wire, rear-wheel steering, electric drive, braking and other execution units into a collaborative network with millisecond-level response. In addition, VMC also "shakes hands" with the cockpit domain and the body domain, allowing components such as intelligent high-definition projector headlights, interior ambient lights, electric doors, and electric rear wings to also be linked with the chassis (functional case: "SkyRide Dance" of NIO ET9).
VMC runs between the front & rear ZCUs and the central computing cluster, and combines cloud data processing capabilities to manage more than 2,100 vehicle dynamics parameters with the task processing latency of <10ms.
Based on the software and hardware (central computing + cross-domain integration + VMC control), NIO ES9 can achieve a series of chassis control functions such as high-speed tire puncture safety control, senseless passing through speed bumps, Champagne Tower Stunt on ice and snow pavements, and intelligent height limit assistance.
NIO Skyride Intelligent Chassis
Source: NIO
2. VMC Links Intelligent Driving and Chassis Actuator
Intelligent driving is developing towards L3 and above levels. The traditional distributed control architecture cannot meet the stringent requirements of high-level intelligent driving for response speed and collaborative accuracy, which has given rise to the demand for "chassis collaborative control". VMC has become a popular solution and is favored by many OEMs. As NIO engineers said: "If the intelligent driving system has to call five or six controller interfaces such as steering, braking, and suspension, it will be a disaster without VMC. VMC must become the unified interface that connects the perception of intelligent driving to the actuation of the chassis. "
Summary of VMC Solutions of Some OEMs
Source: ResearchInChina
SAIC IM is one of the first OEMs in China to adopt the VMC solution which has now been iterated to version 3.0 and is installed on all vehicle models of SAIC IM.
Version 1.0 was released in May 2024. At the software level, the coordinated control of the body posture in the three directions (X, Y, and Z) with six degrees of freedom can be realized, and functions such as air spring height, shock absorber damping, and electronic parking can be uniformly adjusted and controlled.
Version 2.0, released in September 2024, supports OTA. The chassis is integrated with the intelligent driving domain, and a tire puncture stability control system is added. Through the data fusion of LiDAR and wheel speed sensors, tire punctures can be identified and emergency solutions can be initiated within 200ms. In the 220km/h high-speed tire puncture test, the system controlled the vehicle offset within 0.5 meters through the coordinated control of rear wheel reverse deflection and unilateral braking.
Version 3.0 was released in November 2025 and installed on IM LS9. The number of cross-domain control items that the chassis can carry out has been increased to 14, and vehicle dynamics can be adjusted in real time to suppress motion sickness by reducing the swing amplitude. Active anti-rollover has been upgraded to version 3.0. During emergency avoidance, the top speed control over intelligent four-wheel steering can reduce the risk of rollover by up to 54%.
Contents
320 pages in total
1 Overview of Passenger Car Chassis Domain Control and Chassis Cross-Domain Integration
Evolution of Intelligent Vehicle EEAs
Concept of Chassis Domain
Evolution Trends of Intelligent Chassis
Evolution of Chassis Integrated Control Architectures (1-3)
Lateral-Longitudinal-Vertical Integrated Chassis Control Architecture
Cross-Domain Integration of Intelligent Vehicles
Evolution Logic of Cross-Domain Integration
Considerations for Cross-Domain Integration
Typical Trends of Cross-Domain Integration
Domain Control under Cross-Domain Integration
Classification of Cross-Domain Integration Platforms for Intelligent Vehicles
Cross-Domain Integration of Chassis (1)
Cross-Domain Integration of Chassis (2)
2 Cross-Domain Integration Application Scenarios of Passenger Car Chassis
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Summary of OEMs' High-Speed Tire Blowout Stability Control Applications (1)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Summary of OEMs' High-Speed Tire Blowout Stability Control Applications (2)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Logic of High-Speed Tire Blowout Stability Control (1)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Logic of High-Speed Tire Blowout Stability Control (2)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Cases of Vehicle Models with High-Speed Tire Blowout Stability Control
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Evolution of High-Speed Tire Blowout Stability Control
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Summary of OEMs' Wet & Slippery Pavement Control Applications (1)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Summary of OEMs' Wet & Slippery Pavement Control Applications (2)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Principle of Wet & Slippery Pavement Control
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): OEMs' Wet & Slippery Pavement Control Application Cases (1)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): OEMs' Wet & Slippery Pavement Control Application Cases (2)
Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (3-8)
3 Summary and Trends of Passenger Car Chassis Domain Control and Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Product Layout
- 3.1 Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Central Computing + Zonal Control" Architecture
- Advantages of Zonal Control
- Types of ZCUs
- Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Central Computing + Zonal Control" Architecture (1)
- Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Central Computing + Zonal Control" Architecture (2)
- Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Central Computing + Zonal Control" Architecture (3)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (1): NIO ET9 (1)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (1): NIO ET9 (2)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (2)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (3)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (4): Li L9 Livis
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (5)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (6)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (7)
- Chassis Control Cases under Central Computing Architecture (8)
- 3.2 Summary of Vehicle Motion Control (VMC) Solutions
- Summary of VMC Solutions (1)
- Summary of VMC Solutions (2)
- Summary of VMC Solutions (3)
- Cases of Vehicle Models with VMC Solutions (1)
- Cases of Vehicle Models with VMC Solutions (2)
- Cases of Vehicle Models with VMC Solutions (3)
- 3.3 Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Quasi Central Computing + Zonal Control/Distributed" Architectures
- Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Quasi Central Computing + Zonal Control/Distributed" Architectures (1)
- Summary of Chassis Control Solutions under "Quasi Central Computing + Zonal Control/Distributed" Architectures (2)
- Cases of Vehicle Models with Chassis Control Solutions under "Quasi Central Computing + Zonal Control/Distributed" Architectures (1)
- Cases of Vehicle Models with Chassis Control Solutions under "Quasi Central Computing + Zonal Control/Distributed" Architectures (2)
- 3.4 Summary of Passenger Car Chassis Domain Control and Cross-Domain Integration Trends
- Trend 1: Application of AI in Chassis Control
- AI Promotes Multi-Domain Intelligent Integration of Vehicles
- AI Drives Cross-Domain Integration of "Intelligent Driving + Chassis"
- AI Drives Cross-Domain Integration of Chassis and Powertrain to Achieve Precise Motion Control
- Application of AI in Chassis Control
- OEM Chassis AI Application Cases (1)
- OEM Chassis AI Application Cases (2)
- Trend 2
- Trend 3
4 Chassis Domain Control and Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Layout of OEMs
- 4.1 NIO
- Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions
- Chassis Domain Controller Solutions: ICC (1)
- Chassis Domain Controller Solutions: Main Features of ICC (2)
- Chassis Domain Controller Solutions: Controllable Module of Chassis Domain Controller
- Chassis Domain Controller Solutions: ICC Application Cases (1)
- Chassis Domain Controller Solutions: ICC Application Cases (2)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Software Foundation
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Hardware Foundation: Central Computing Platform (1)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Hardware Foundation: Central Computing Platform (2)
- VMC System under Chassis Cross-Domain Integration
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Digital Architecture of New ES8
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Chassis of New ES8
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Cases of New Chassis Functions of New ES8 (1)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (1): Cases of New Chassis Functions of New ES8 (2)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Digital Architecture of ES9
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Intelligent Chassis Architecture of ES9 (1)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Intelligent Chassis Architecture of ES9 (2)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases (2): Cases of New Chassis Functions of New ES9
- 4.2 Xpeng
- Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions (1)
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions (2)
- Digital Architecture of GX (1)
- Digital Architecture of GX (2)
- "Next-Generation Native Chassis-by-Wire" of GX
- Cases of New Functions under Chassis Cross-Domain Integration of GX
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases: Digital Architecture of X9 (1)
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Application Cases: Digital Architecture of X9 (2)
- Digital Architecture of G7
- Chassis of G7: Taiji AI Chassis (1)
- Chassis of G7: Taiji AI Chassis (2)
- Cross-Domain Integration Cases (1)
- Cross-Domain Integration Cases (2)
- Cross-Domain Integration Cases (3)
- Cross-Domain Integration Cases (4)
- 4.3 Li Auto
- Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions
- Evolution of EEAs
- Central Computing Unit under LEEA 3.0
- Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Products
- Digital Architecture and Chassis Control of L9
- Digital Architecture of L9 Livis
- Full Chassis-by-Wire of L9 Livis (1)
- Full Chassis-by-Wire of L9 Livis (2)
- Vehicle Control System (1)
- Vehicle Control System (2)
- Vehicle Control System (3)
- Chassis Application Cases of Vehicle Control System
- Digital Architecture and Chassis Control Layout of MAGA
- 4.4 Xiaomi
- 4.5 Leapmotor
- 4.6 Harmony Intelligent Mobility Alliance (HIMA)
- 4.7 SAIC IM
- Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions
- Iteration of Vehicle Motion Control (VMC) Platform (1)
- Iteration of Vehicle Motion Control (VMC) Platform (2)
- Iteration of Vehicle Motion Control (VMC) Platform (3)
- Digital Architecture and Chassis Control Solution of LS9
- Digital Architecture and Chassis Control Solution of LS8 (1)
- Digital Architecture and Chassis Control Solution of LS8 (2)
- New Functions of Cross-Domain Integration of Chassis and Intelligent Driving (1)
- New Functions of Cross-Domain Integration of Chassis and Intelligent Driving (2)
- 4.8 Voyah
- Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions
- Chassis Control Solutions (1)
- Chassis Control Solutions (2)
- Digital Architecture of Titan (1)
- Digital Architecture of Titan (2)
- Chassis Control Solution of Titan
- 4.9 Geely & ZEEKR
- Geely: Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Geely: Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Geely: Iteration of EEAs
- Geely: Early Chassis Control Solutions (1)
- Geely: Early Chassis Control Solutions (2)
- Geely: Early Chassis Control Solutions (3)
- Geely: Early Chassis Control Solutions (4)
- Geely: Current Chassis Control Solution
- Geely: Intra-Chassis-Domain Integrated Control Technology
- Geely: Digital Chassis Technology Breakthrough Directions
- Geely: Chassis Cross-Domain Integration Directions
- Geely: Chassis Control Safety Redundancy Arrangement
- Geely: Integration of Chassis Control and AI
- Geely: Chassis Control Solution of Galaxy M9
- Geely: New Chassis Functions (1)
- Geely: New Chassis Functions (2)
- Geely: New Chassis Functions (3)
- Geely: New Chassis Functions (4)
- ZEEKR: Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- ZEEKR: Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- ZEEKR: EEA Design
- ZEEKR: Chassis Control Software Solution
- ZEEKR: Chassis Control Solution of 9X
- ZEEKR: New Functions of Cross-Domain Integration of Chassis and Intelligent Driving
- 4.10 Changan
- Chassis Control Solutions under Different EEAs
- Summary of Chassis Control Software and Hardware Solutions
- Cases of New Chassis Control Functions
- Planning of Brand Strategy 2.0
- New Vehicle Model Architecture under Brand Strategy 2.0
- Chassis Control Solution under Brand Strategy 2.0
- New Intelligent Automotive Brand
- Chassis Solution under New Intelligent Automotive Brand
- Scenarios of Chassis Solutions under New Intelligent Automotive Brand
- Chassis Control Application Cases
- 4.11 BYD
- 4.12 Great Wall Motor
- 4.13 Chery
- 4.14 GAC
- 4.15 FAW Hongqi
- 4.16 Avatr
- 4.17 Tesla
- 4.18 Mercedes-Benz
- 4.19 BMW
- 4.20 Toyota
- 4.21 GM
